2 Performance Analysis

If you are an instructional designer for workplace training, components of performance analysis can guide your work to improve overall job performance. Performance analysis involves systematic investigation of various performance contexts and their constraints to affect desired outcomes. Information is gathered about the performers, work settings, and tasks. The ISPI HPT model proposed the following main components for performance analysis: organizational mission, strategy, and goals (Van Tiem et al., 2004). First, determine the gap between the desired workforce performance and the actual situation. ISPI’s model provides this typology of root causes at the workplace: consequences, incentives, and rewards, as well as intervention selection and design possibilities such as appraisal systems, career development, and coaching.

Goal Analysis

First, company goals and objectives for workplace performance must be fleshed out with a goal analysis. Mager (1997) developed a five-step method to analyze organizational concepts and write measurable goals:

1. Write each goal your organization wants to address on a separate piece of paper.
2. List observable activities and their corresponding characteristics that reflect goal completion.
3. Ensure that the list of activities describes actions, not outcomes. If some are identified as outcomes, then these are goals and should be addressed separately. Mager prompted goal writers to consider combining or eliminating goals in the process of narrowing their focus on the performance problem.
4. Write a complete statement for each of the observable activities in terms of acceptable quality and quantity. Mager noted that goals can be positive (must be present) or negative (not present).
5. Test each goal statement with the following question: “If someone performed this activity or characteristic, is the goal achieved?”

Mager stated that if the organization does not have measurable goals, it could only claim that they are achieving its intangible goals. Hence, they could be making false claims.

Performance Analysis Models

Strategic Impact Model

Molenda and Pershing’s (2003) Strategic Impact Model for performance improvement focuses on emphasizing activities that significantly contribute to an organization’s strategic goals. Their model was designed for noninstructional performance interventions; however, it follows the same analysis, design, development, and production cycle as an instructional one would. Inherent in their analysis phase are output, evaluation, and change management. They incorporated Wile’s (1996) list of possible root causes for performance problems: inherent abilities, skills/knowledge, physical environment, tools, cognitive support, incentives, and organizational systems. Nonetheless, Molenda and Pershing stated that the number of possible root causes is limitless and that almost all performance problems are rooted in more than one cause. Wile’s list is a job aid for novice analysts to understand the activities and items required in the analysis phase.

Behavior Engineering Model

Performance problems are multifaceted and multivariate. Identifying the types of performance problems will aid the novice analyst in determining the root cause(s) of a problem. Gilbert categorized performance problems in his Behavior Engineering Model (1978). Later, Gilbert modified his original concept to focus on environmental factors rather than training (Binder, 1998) because he believed the absence of performance support factors in the work environment was the greatest block to exemplary performance. The environmental factors that affect performance problems include information, resources, and incentives. The individual factors are knowledge, capacity, and motives. There is some overlap with Gilbert’s list of performance problems and Klein’s (2010) environmental factor analysis for performance, as Klein’s workforce and workplace categories contain the same items. However, Klein’s list differs with the addition of the work category, which is illustrated in Table 2. The work category is essential when conducting a job analysis.

Table 2

Environmental Factors for Performance

Needs Assessment

At the job level, the needs assessment (NA) includes a contrastive analysis design of the tasks involved to meet the organization’s objective with that of the knowledge/skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics (KSAOs) of the actual job (Spector, 2008). The list of KSAOs identifies what tasks should be addressed in training, and the objectives signify which tasks to focus on. The person level of an NA addresses how the individual is performing those job tasks related to an organization’s objectives (Spector). Klein’s (2010) list of performance factors for analysis included the workforce, workplace, and work. His work category for environmental analysis covers the job tasks, processes, policies, procedures, and employee responsibilities related to the opportunity or problem. Klein’s inclusion of the minutia of job tasks and the related processes and procedures will help a novice analyst dig deeper. Superficially stating that a worker is not performing well without analyzing the actual work is a perceptual bias that should be avoided.

NA is conducted if instructional solutions are required. After conducting a performance analysis, the analyst will have the information gathered to determine if the problem warrants training or a noninstructional solution. It is the formal process of identifying gaps between actuals and optimals for an organization (Dick et al., 2009). Analysts derive this from the desired performance status (optimal) minus the actual status to define the gap. At the organizational level, an NA focuses on an organization’s stated objectives about the performance level of its employees. Klein suggested an organizational analysis to identify the mission, vision, and goal of an organization, and an environmental analysis to uncover causal factors of performance problems or opportunities. Unfortunately, most organizations do not utilize NA (Spector, 2008). Therefore, an instructional designer may have to explain the rationale for conducting one.

It is imperative to conduct an NA to address problems that warrant instructional solutions; otherwise, an analyst may end up training the wrong employees or not addressing the zone of proximal development for those in need. Use the information gained from a performance analysis to share gaps in performance with the organization. Use a performance road map to illustrate whether the problem warrants an instructional or noninstructional intervention. The performance analysis will provide evidence of the gap and the structure of intervention required; however, it will not specifically address the amount or type of learning that needs to take place to fill the gap. That is the purpose and function of an NA.